Sapiens

Yuval Noah Harari takes on the seemingly impossible task of charting the history of our species while masterminding his book Sapiens. Beginning over two million years ago to explore other, oft-forgotten, species in the Homo genus, he explains how our species, Homo Sapiens, first emerged. Brimming with information and concepts, the book then follows Homo Sapiens over the course of the last 500,000 or so years, navigating their rise to the top of the food chain and the hand they have played in mass extinctions, of both other human and non-human species, across the globe.

Divided into four sections, Harari begins by explaining the ‘Cognitive Revolution’. In line with this, he argues that the success of our human species rests on two factors: our imagination and our social nature. Homo Sapiens have the impressive ability to craft elaborate concepts such as religions, nation states, human rights and even money. As we attach enormous credence to these fictitious beliefs, mutual trust helps bind Homo Sapiens together. We are thus inspired to engage in widespread cooperation and collaboration at much larger scales than other species. In this way, Harari draws parallels between religions and the various political and economic systems we find ourselves in, from capitalist economies and liberal democracies to Communist societies and monarchies which are all underpinned by common ideologies. Sapiens also raises an interesting point that as we have constructed our social, religious, political and cultural structures, they are inherently plagued by discrimination on various fronts: racial, gendered and class-based, to name a few.

Harari then moves on to explain Homo Sapiens shift from hunter-gatherers to agricultural farmers. Through this process, humans inadvertently limited their diets and restricted themselves to that which they could grow, unlike their hunter-gatherer forefathers who enjoyed a varied range of plants. Biologically-speaking, certain vegetation such as wheat succeeded as humans created favourable conditions for their rapid reproduction and the survival of their DNA. The ‘Agricultural Revolution’ era also witnessed the development of relationships between humans and animals and led to domestication of various species. Here, Harari offers a warning note of the devastation humans have wreaked on other species and the enormous suffering of those animals not only involved in agricultural production but those also removed from their habitats to make space for humans. 

This move towards widespread agriculture resulted in the emergence of human settlements. The third section, titled ‘the Unification of Mankind’ then explores the development of human societies. Accordingly, it discusses the creation of shared norms and behaviours, known as culture, and religious rituals that come with a common belief in the same God. Harari therefore explains how cultures and religions work to develop ties and bonds between individuals which are furthered through economic trade and political conquest. This leads Harari to narrate the rise of empires which fostered greater interdependence between communities, making the world symbolically smaller and more interconnected. This has led to the creation of a universal global empire as exemplified by shared concepts such as international law, capitalism, sovereignty etcetera.

The final section, and perhaps the book’s most ambitious, charts the rapid ‘Scientific Revolution’ over the last 500 years, a relatively short period in evolutionary terms. Harari utilises diagrams to explain how science, militarisation and capitalism are closely intertwined, informing and influencing one another. A crucial element of this was Sapiens’ acknowledgement of their own ignorance about the world. Once we rejected religious claims that we have been divinely offered all relevant knowledge, accepting massive limitations in our current understandings, science witnessed an unprecedented boom. Simultaneously, the adoption of credit, another imaginary human construction, led to the pervasiveness of capitalism. Governments, corporations and private individuals were able to fund scientific research and the exploration of unknown lands in their quest for knowledge, thereby expanding imperialism. Greater investment in science also yielded technological advancements; expanded humans’ arsenal of weapons and sparked the Industrial Revolution. This was formative in changing the shape of our societies as urbanisation has witnessed the breakdown of traditional familial ties and their replacement by the state which provides a range of services such as healthcare, education, welfare and legal protection. Imagined communities, such as that of the nation and consumer tribe, replaced actual communities to offer a sense of belonging which underpins our nature.

Sapiens ends on rather a mixed note. While Harari points out that, despite what appear to be persistent wars, the overall mortality rate from violent conflict has significantly reduced over the years. He offers some reassurance that the high levels of global economic and political interconnectedness and the threat of annihilation by means of nuclear weapons ensure that the disadvantages of war greatly outweigh the potential benefits. Looting and pillaging for material goods is no longer profitable as the wealth of a nation lies in its human capital and scientific knowledge. Harari notes that while the standard of living has certainly improved and poverty levels decreased, Homo Sapiens today are no happier than their hunter-gather ancestors. While scientific and technological advancements are purported to bring greater contentment, rising expectations have ensured an insatiable cycle of greed. This is heavily influenced by mass media through which advertising agencies, with their capitalist and consumerist agendas, promulgate their messages.  The last few pages resemble a sinister foreshadowing, calling into question the dangers of unchecked scientific research and ethical issues associated with human interference in biological processes. Setting up nicely for his sequel ‘Homo Deus’, which attempts to predict the future of our species, Harari offers a word of caution for those attempting to manipulate the natural world.

The power of Sapiens lies in its ability to captivate even those un-inclined towards history and social sciences. The breadth of topics covered from economic frameworks and theological arguments to scientific advancements and animal rights ensures a holistic approach with something to appeal to all interests.  A review cannot hope to do justice to the intricate and complex ideas presented by Harari nor the insightful connections and stories he weaves. It can only offer a glimpse into the exhaustive overview in store for readers with the hopes of inspiring them to learn more about themselves and the multi-faceted social, cultural, economic and political environments in which they co-exist.

For more information on the book see Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind by Yuval Noah Harari